The Ways in which Shakespeare Presents the Relationship...

From the first moment Shakespeare introduces the audience to Malvolio we find out about Malvolio’s relationship with Olivia. Immediately Olivia asks Malvolio for his support ‘What thinks you of this fool Malvolio’. Shakespeare establishes that Olivia shows trust in Malvolio through the way she expects Malvolio to take her side. Even though Shakespeare might have expected his audience to hear that line and refer it to Malvolio being Olivia’s steward, so it was his job. Also this relates to the start of Malvolio’s and Olivia’s developing relationship. Shakespeare implies that the character Olivia thinks Malvolio is self-centered ‘O you we sick of self-love Malvolio’. Shakespeare makes it clear to his audience that although Olivia trusts and respects Malvolio his opinions, however outside of business Olivia doesn’t respect Malvolio. Shakespeare also suggests that Olivia is sick of self-love through the way she word her question. Also Shakespeare suggesting that Olivia herself is sick of self-love through way her pride of rejecting her suitors. Shakespeare shows clearly that Malvolio is Olivia’s steward and the she expects and trust him in following her instructions ‘Go you Malvolio. If it be a suit from the count †¦ what you will to dismiss it’. Shakespeare shows that Malvolio is Olivia’s steward and she expects and trusts Malvolio to follow her instruction and to cast away suitors, whatever it takes. Shakespeare insinuates the reason why Malvolio thinks he can woo Olivia,Show Mor eRelated Love in twelfth night Essay714 Words   |  3 Pages Love in twelfth night In the play twelfth night, Shakespeare covered three types of love : Lust, true love and brotherly love. Love is one of the most confusing and most misunderstood emotions that we as humans posses. Love is an extremely diverse emotion which is why it was used as the main topic in twelfth night. Lust, which is probably one of the most confusing types of love was an apparent subject in twelfth night.There are many reasons why one would lust, one could be because you are attractedRead MoreThemes Of Social Mobility Through Marriage1655 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeare’s play ‘Twelfth Night’. In addition, the paper highlights how different characters in the play got into higher social classes or desired to be in higher social classes through marriage. This paper holds that in a highly stratified society such as that presented in the Shakespeare’s play; marriage plays a significant role in in social class mobility. 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Among his many plays is the notable, Twelfth Night, a romantic comedy, placed in a festive atmosphere in which three couples are brought together happily. The play opens with Orsino, the Duke of Illyria, expressing his deep love for the Countess Olivia. Meanwhile, the shipwrecked Viola disguisesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Twelfth Night And Sheridan s The Rivals1884 Words   |  8 Pages The theme of ‘love’ is central to the attitudes in both Shakespeare’s ‘Twelfth Night’ and Sheridan’s ‘The Rivals’. Both playwrights highlight the different kinds of love and portray these through each character’s experience with the emotion. In both plays, the complexity of love is embodied by deception which demonstrates how easily our feelings can be manipulated, which is also conveyed through comedy. Shakespeare mocks the main character’s idea’s of love by showing how the devotion that connectsRead More Gender Roles in Twelfth Night Essay example2154 Words   |  9 PagesStratford-upon-Avon, England, William Shakespeare is considered by many to have been the greatest writer the English language has ever known. His literary legacy included 37 plays, 154 sonnets, and five major poems. Among his many plays is the notable, Twelfth Night, a romantic comedy, placed in a festive atmosphere in which three couples a re brought together happily. The play opens with Orsino, the Duke of Illyria, expressing his deep love for the Countess Olivia. Meanwhile, the shipwrecked ViolaRead MoreAnalysis Of The Twelfth Night 1651 Words   |  7 Pagesworld. To realise the relative nature of all that exists, and to enter a completely new order of things† To what extent do you feel that the â€Å"carnivalesque† conventions of comedy convey a meaningful challenge to the existing order of things? The Twelfth Night perhaps manifests around the continuous abolishment of social norms and traditional customs. The events that take place within the play are intertwined with typical connotations that surround abnormality and could possibly support the entry to

The High School Of New York City And Its High Academic...

Ngan Tran Ms. Conant Anonymous Email At the local town of New York City, there is a well-known school with its high academic standard and moral code of conduct. Whenever someone stopped by Amsterdam Academy, it would difficult for them to leave because of the beauty views and friendly people in here. However, my school is so strict about moral status, the only condition to attend in this school is promising to uphold high moral standard. That was also a challenge for many students to be honest in their high school career, including me. I myself felt proud and fortunate to attend this campus, especially when I received financial assistance from school for many years because my parents could barely afford my tuition. I always worked hard†¦show more content†¦When I think about history, I always feel distress because the ton of information, somewhere out there, are trying to blur out my brain and make me want to sleep. However, my history teacher is very nice and helpful. She always finds a new me thod of teacher that make students engaging within participating in class. I always get into the way Mrs. May teaches us, her experiences and her stories are so interesting. But one thing we realized that was never cheat in her class because she will be really upset about it. A couple months had passes, school reached almost to the end of the quarter. We had many exams coming up for the evaluation grade of the quarter. History final exam made me so nervous and scared, even though I preformed well through the quarter. Then Wednesday came, it was our test date. Everyone seemed so nervous, some people were talking about how they studied very hard for the test, some people are isolated themselves with the study guides on their hands and some are just hang out on their phones. When the bell rang, the whole class turned to silent, Mrs. May went to front with stack of paper in her hand. Are you ready, my friend?, she asked. She usually called us friends because she said it would make us f eel better to be in her class. The whole class with their powerful annotation Yes, ma am!. I was ready to take this test, a test that would measure how much I learned from last couple months. She

Leisure Mapping Essay free essay sample

?The activities performed for leisure are divided into two categories; passive leisure time and active leisure time. The department of Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (2013) defines passive leisure time as the time spent on rudimentary activities that require minimal mental and physical exertion. In contrast, active leisure time is the time spent on leisurely activities that require the use of physical or mental abilities such as playing sports or socializing. For the purpose of clarity, the term active leisure time will be referred to as recreation time in this paper as both terms encompasses similar meanings. From Sunday, January 6th to Saturday, January 12th, a large portion of my time was spent sleeping, attending classes or studying. On average, roughly eighteen hours per day were spent performing these activities this particular week. Leisure time occupied roughly twenty-two hours of the week with an average of three hours per day. This time map indicates that I am fortunate enough to have ample time for relaxation and leisure every day of the week. We will write a custom essay sample on Leisure Mapping Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Similarly, time for recreational and physical activities occupied seventeen hours of the week with an average of two and a half hours per day. The Public Health Agency of Canada (2012) suggests that adults aged from eighteen to sixty-four years old should be performing moderate to intense activities at least two and a half hours per week to achieve health benefits. According to the time map, two and a half hours were spent every single day being moderately to rigorously active, indicating that I have a fairly active lifestyle. A major sociocultural factor that allows me to have sufficient time for leisurely and recreational activities is the fact that I am male. Men tend to have more access to and have a greater participation rate in sports and physical activity in general. The Get Active Report Toronto (2013) states, fifty percent of girls are inactive compared to twenty-seven percent of boys. The report also states that girls at the Youth Summit indicated that homework and household duties such as chores prevent them from participating in extra-curricular activities after school. In my life, this is especially prevalent because I am South Asian. In the South Asian community, women are expected to learn how to be good wives essentially. They are encouraged to learn how to cook, how to take care of the house and how to attend to the needs of the men. (Jacobsen Pratap, 2004) I am expected to go to University and get great grades so that I may pursue a rewarding career in some professional field because that’s what the eldest son in a traditional South Asian family is supposed to do. It is normal for me to go out regularly to play basketball or have dinner with my friends, to my parents that is what boys do. However, my sister is expected to help out with household chores, or most of the time, does them herself. Juggling household chores and school work does not allow my sister with enough time to go to the gym or spend time with her friends very often. If my sister goes out too much, speaks a certain way or even dresses a certain way, there are major repercussions. It is extremely unfair for my sister, but my family has had these values ingrained for generations, my parents are not easily swayed from comfortable traditions. In addition to being male in a South Asian household, being a man makes it easier for me to participate in recreational sport. I play basketball twice a week as my time map indicates. Every time I go to the gymnasium, where the basketball courts are, it is filled with men. Almost every court is always occupied and there is maybe three to four women participating or even standing in the gymnasium. When I walk to the courts, I know I am going to be facing some fierce competition that is just how the guys at the courts are. I probably would not feel the same way if it were women however. At a young age, I along with other boys my age have been conditioned to play with other boys. I’ve been conditioned to believe that boys are better at sports than girls through the media and through gym class. (Carron, 1980) Contrastingly, girls are conditioned to believe that they are not as capable in sport as men are, intimidating images of men being much more skilled and aggressive in sport have been the main cause of why women shy away from competing with men. (Cohen, 2001)

Health Planning and Promotion for Social Determinant †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Health Planning and Promotion for Social Determinant. Answer: Disease prevention and enhancing health outcome is an important part of primary health care. It focus not on the treatment after the pathogenesis of disease, rather it involves ways to prevent those disease from occurring. To promote disease prevention, it is necessary to educate the public about health issues through different range of health promotion activity. Nurse also has an important role in teaching patients about healthy living habits and preventing diseases. It is a way to engage and empower the community to get involved and make changes in life to reduce the risk of chronic diseases (Kemppainen, Tossavainen, Turunen, 2013). By these health promotion programs, nurse and other staff can educate the people about social determinants of health (Social, economic, cultural and political condition of people) which has an impact of modifiable risk behaviors (Eating habits, substance abuse, physical activity and many others. The range of program may include communicating healthy be havior by public announcements, media campaigns, health education training, regulating public health policies and modifying the environment to make feasible changes in the society. This report particularly discusses the benefits of health literacy in primary care and describes strategy taken by nurse to educate Anne about practicing breast awareness. Primary health care (PHC) is the first level of interaction with the community to provide universally accessible and scientific health care service with the support of multi-disciplinary health care team (Smolowitz et al., 2015). It focuses on giving treatment to patients most in need of care and enhancing health outcome. The main purpose of PHC is to maintain health equity and health workers play a role in reducing social disparities in inaccessibility in health services. They main objective of PHC is achieved by health promotion. Health promotion in PHC involves educating individual and communities about ways to promote illness. PHC staff plays a role in the development of community through health literacy program and they collaborate with each other to enhance equity and access to health service. Health care staff make public aware of social determinant of health. Efficient service is delivered by collaboration with other health care facility to increase and enhance public health outcome. The range of activities of PHC may include health promotion, community empowerment, rehabilitation, treatment and disease prevention. The existence of PHC is important as they reduce the additional pressure of hospitals to maintain high quality sustainable health care services (Keleher Lim, 2015). According to Ottawa Charter, health literacy/health education is defined as the attainment of current health knowledge and interpersonal skills to improve living condition and health outcome (Fry Zask, 2016). Health education is an important part of health promotion programs as it helps in making people aware of necessary health care information and their capability to use that information effectively in life activities. Health literacy aids in creating a supportive environment for health, increasing peoples control over health issues and developing personal skills of people for better management of chronic condition. This form of health promotion activities helps in reorienting the health system and fosters participation of public in achieving health goals (Tone, Robinson, Tilford, 2013).Health literacy will enable people to better understand diagnosis of disease and engage in health care decisions. Nurse who engage in health promotion first need to be match their personal care wi th individual patient needs and then identify the economic, social, political factors that have an impact on people health status. By health education activities, they serve to promote continuity of care in health care setting (Hsieh, 2013). Advocacy is an important aspect of health promotion. Although health literacy program was not practiced earlier, however health care facilities are now paying more attention to it due its overall benefit on health of people. Health literacy enable people to understand the cause of diseases, effectively share health issues with physicians and nurses, engaging in disease management and controlling risky behavior that led to diseases. It also promotes adherence to diseases. Behavior of lifestyle of people may also have impact on health outcome. Sometimes people do not adhere to treatment because of negative experiences in the health care system. In such case, health literacy also helps to remove those wrong notions about the health care system and increase peoples trust with the health care system (Edwards, Wood, Davies Edwards, 2015). Knowledge about diseases enables people to take better health decisions and decide what is best for them. Nurses and medical staff help people to find r elevant information and appropriate health services too. Hence, it lead to development of the community as people can easily decide what service and information is best for them and how they should proceed with the information to achieve positive health outcome. Therefore, familiarity with medical terms and body functioning system helps people to evaluate the risk in health decisions and empower them to play an active role in the management of their diseases (Srensen et al., 2012). A study also reported the relationship between health literacy and adherence to treatment procedure. Colbert, Sereika and Erlen, (2013) reported that effective health literacy lead to better adherence to medications as people develop skills to manage and prevent disease. With the relevant knowledge about disease, they modify their lifestyle to minimize the morbidities associated with diseases. This study particularly studies about HIV/ AIDS self-management. It has been found that many people face challenges with adhering to medication despite various tools to assist in taking medicines efficiently. The researcher studied about the impact of health literacy on medication taking efficiency of patients with HIV/ AIDS. It was found that health education about making antiretroviral medications led to better medicine taking efficiency in patients. This section discusses the strategies that can be taken by nurse to provide health education to Anne. In order to effectively plan health education strategy for Anne, it is important to identify what knowledge deficit Anne has. On analysis of case study, it is seen that Anne Giovanni is a 19 year old Italian woman who lives with her grandmother and has been hospitalized recently due to exacerbation of her asthma. As a practice nurse I was assigned the duty to provide health education to Anne. My first duty was to assess the level of knowledge deficit in Anne. On interaction with Anne, I got to know that Anne left school at the age of ten only and she has no knowledge about the cause of asthma and the things that aggravates the condition. Although, she takes her puffer many times a day. In order to check how she uses it, I asked her to demonstrate puffer technique. I found her technique to be inappropriate. Another serious finding for me was that she has no knowledge about breast awar eness and she never had a pap smear. It will be a challenge for me to provide health education to Anne as she had not continued her schooling and she might not have adequate knowledge compared to other patients of the same age. Therefore, my first strategy will be to explain her about etiology of asthma and make her aware about breast cancer in simple and engaging manner. Since, Anne has left her study; she may have problem in understanding medical terms and figure. My strategy will be to create a good learning environment for Anne. I will demonstrate the pathophysiology of disease and breast awareness by simple video presentation for better understanding of the disease. I will explain everything to her in simple language without use of medical terms. Clear communication style will be crucial during my interaction with Anne so that I can make her aware about the triggers of Asthma and how to practice breast awareness (Gaude, Hattiholi, Chaudhury, (2014). Even well-educated people face problem in understanding medical t erms and concepts of disease. In case of Anne, I will give simple and clear instruction and make sure that I review all the instruction with Anne to evaluate her learning after each session. Due to low literacy skills, Anne may feel ashamed to ask questions and so I will speak slowly to increase retention of information. I will stop after each point to ask question so that Anne repeats back the information. This will help in building an effective learning environment (Murray O'Neil, 2016). Regarding knowledge about the etiology of asthma and breast awareness, Anne may have little knowledge about it due to her Catholic background. Asthma is a condition that leads to inflammation and obstruction of the airways. People may have asthma attacks due to various inflammatory triggers or allergies like air pollutants, pollens, moulds, dust mites, insects, chemical fumes, food additives, smoke and many others (Doeing Solway, 2013). I will encourage Anne check what triggers her asthma so that she can keep check on those triggers. My health education strategy will be to explain Anne about airway inflammation through simple figures to enhance her concept of disease. Another crucial thing for me will be to demonstrate her inhaler technique and give information in specific food allergy. Correct technique of taking inhalers will help Anne to gain maximum benefit from the medication. It will mean giving her repeated hands-on training on correct use of inhalers to prevent the risk of r epeated asthma attacks and hospitalization. Anne will also be advised to take her preventer for asthma as it will protect her from exacerbation of asthma. It will help relieve her symptoms during asthma flare-ups (Levy, Hardwell, McKnight Holmes, 2013). Knowledge about breast awareness practice is essential for Anne to prevent cases of breast cancer. High mortality rate is seen due to late diagnosis of cancer and lack of awareness about breast awareness practice. Hence, it will be necessary that Anne learn breast-self-examination technique so that early detection and long-term survival becomes possible. It will not mean doing a breast examination, but it will mean Anne should feel the breast from time to time to assess if everything is normal. A pap smear is essential for Anne if she is taking medications for asthma. This is because excessive coughing due to asthma put additional strain on pelvis muscle and increases risk of cervical cancer. In my health education program, I will teach Anne to self-examine her breast regularly. It will mean examining her breast in the mirror every month and using palpation technique with three fingers to detect abnormal changes. It may help to detect lump in early stage of cancer development. With t his teaching, she will be able to manage her breast problems. I will provide her written and verbal information about what signs are normal for breast and what signs of breast changes may be problematic (Jones et al., 2015). I will encourage her to voice her concern regarding any issues related to breast management so that she clears her doubt. She must regularly check signs of tightness of breast. I will also make her aware about screening methods so that early detection becomes possible. This education about the body will help Anne to empower Anne to control her health issues. Hence Anne needs to be breast aware to detect any abnormal signs so that she can easily seek help. It will lead to better health condition as Anne ages. After the end of health education program, I will evaluate her understanding of the condition by asking her to repeat about the information on breast awareness and asthma medication technique. This report emphasized on the importance of health education in health education programs and gave an idea about how to develop best health education strategy by giving example on case study of Anne. The report gives an understanding of the role of primary health care in health promotions activities and how health literacy fit into the program. A range of benefits of the health literacy was provided such as adherence to treatment protocol, disease prevention and management, building trust with the health care system and making confident health care decision. Through the analysis of case study on Anne who has asthma, the report provided answers to the role of nurse in identifying knowledge deficits of the condition. The report demonstrated how nurse can plan to teach patients who have low level of literacy and how to teach them in an efficient manner to achieve the objective of health promotion. Through this approach one can understand the importance of health literacy to empower the society to bring positive changes in their lifestyle to get better health benefits. Reference Colbert, A. M., Sereika, S. M., Erlen, J. A. (2013). Functional health literacy, medication taking self efficacy and adherence to antiretroviral therapy.Journal of advanced nursing,69(2), 295-304. Doeing, D. C., Solway, J. (2013). Airway smooth muscle in the pathophysiology and treatment of asthma.Journal of Applied Physiology,114(7), 834-843. Edwards, M., Wood, F., Davies, M., Edwards, A. (2015). Distributed health literacy: longitudinal qualitative analysis of the roles of health literacy mediators and social networks of people living with a long term health condition.Health Expectations,18(5), 1180-1193. Fry, D., Zask, A. (2016). Applying the Ottawa Charter to inform health promotion programme design.Health promotion international, daw022. Gaude, G. S., Hattiholi, J., Chaudhury, A. (2014). Role of health education and self-action plan in improving the drug compliance in bronchial asthma.Journal of family medicine and primary care,3(1), 33. Hsieh, E. (2013). Health literacy and patient empowerment: The role of medical interpreters in bilingual health communication.Reducing health disparities: Communication intervention, 35-58. Jones, R. M., Wallace, I. J., Westerberg, A., Hoy, K. N., Quillin, J. M., Danish, S. J. (2015). Getting Youth to Check it Out!: A new approach to teaching self-screening.American journal of health behavior,39(2), 197-204. Keleher, H., Lim, D. (2015). Population health planning and health promotion: Opportunities and challenges to improve social determinants. Kemppainen, V., Tossavainen, K., Turunen, H. (2013). Nurses' roles in health promotion practice: an integrative review.Health Promotion International,28(4), 490-501. Levy, M. L., Hardwell, A., McKnight, E., Holmes, J. (2013). Asthma patients' inability to use a pressurised metered-dose inhaler (pMDI) correctly correlates with poor asthma control as defined by the global initiative for asthma (GINA) strategy: a retrospective analysis.Primary Care Respiratory Journal,22, 406-411. Murray, B., O'Neil, M. (2016). Nurses Role in Delivering the Message: The Value of Health Promotion and Patient Education in the Self-Care Management of Adults with Asthma.J Nurs Care,5(351), 2167-1168. Smolowitz, J., Speakman, E., Wojnar, D., Whelan, E. M., Ulrich, S., Hayes, C., Wood, L. (2015). Role of the registered nurse in primary health care: Meeting health care needs in the 21st century.Nursing outlook,63(2), 130-136. Srensen, K., Van den Broucke, S., Fullam, J., Doyle, G., Pelikan, J., Slonska, Z., Brand, H. (2012). Health literacy and public health: a systematic review and integration of definitions and models.BMC public health,12(1), 1. Tones, K., Robinson, Y. K., Tilford, S. (2013).Health education: effectiveness and efficiency. Springer.

Impact of Gambling on the Bahamian Economy

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack Rome with a Christian Face? Early Byzantine Art 330–527 The discussion of Byzantine art represents a challenge for the researcher. The main issue about Byzantine art is that it demonstrates incompliance with the traditional chronologically-based methodologies of art. Standardly perceived as the art of â€Å"religious icons†, Byzantine art can be defined as the religious art spanning a period of thousand years from 330 to 1453 and centering in the Christian society of Constantinople (Cormack 2).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a way, Byzantine art is timelessness: Christian themes are constant and unchanging throughout its periods. The change and development occurred via new forms of expression and new subjects. The key feature of Byzantine art is that it is mostly religious. The Bible was the main source of inspiration, and mo st objects of art created at that time were considered sacred. Constantinople was the place that played a dominated role in the history of Byzantine art. It was brought to glory as a large metropolis according to the ambitious plan of emperor Constantine. Kilometers of protective walls and aqueducts built by 330 made Constantinople an impregnable stronghold that attracted new citizens by its broad spacious streets. Due to many disastrous fires and gales, the city changed its face repeatedly throughout history, and gradually gained the reputation of a â€Å"collage city† (Cormack 9). Masterpieces were brought to Constantinople from all over Greece and Asia Minor. But the unique feature of Byzantine art proper was that it never used the classical Greek works of art as a sample for imitation. Although Constantinople is mostly associated with the life of Christian society, the city was not established as Christian initially. Started as a typically Roman base with a hippodrome for chariot races, it gradually evolved into a Christian shrine, when a vast collection of holy relics was brought from Jerusalem and St Sophia Cathedral was designed as the center of the Christian empire. Therefore, Christian art as such did not originate in Constantinople. It flourished already in the third century all around the Roman empire, which can be illustrated by the wall paintings in the mud-brick houses of Syria (Cormack 13). The schematic manner of presentation in those paintings is rather traditional. But the innovatory issues are traced in the subject matter which is Christian: the paintings feature motifs of death and salvation from the Old and the New Testament. The Christians of the time used art as a way of communicating their main ideas on life after death. Consequently, scenes including Jonah image were especially popular because Jonah’s rescue from the wale’s inside reminded of Christ’s resurrection from sepulcher (Cormack 14).Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The early art in Byzantium preserved the images of imperial Rome, as well as continued developing the Christian traditions. Marble sarcophagi, reliefs, and statues were still parts of the city landscape. However, in the sixths century the art of sculpture experienced an overall decline, and marble was thus often recycled for building new Christian churches. Apart from marble, such materials were used as stone, brick, and wood. This diversity of materials was made possible by the breadth of Byzantine geographical borders: the empire spanned the territories of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestina, Egypt, North Africa, Italy, and much of the Balkans and Greece (Cormack 17). But this geographical variety was centralized and governed by the city of Constantinople which was the symbol of Byzantine power and control. The location of the Byzantine empire bot h in the east and in the west provided for the specific marriage of different traditions in Byzantine art. Such blend represents a stumbling block for art historians, since the issue of whether Byzantine art is separate from the western style or it developed according to standards common for both. The multifacetedness of Byzantine art makes it difficult to classify the art into self-contained periods. And yet, an attempt to classify early Byzantine art can be made basing on the key historical events: the rise of Constantinople under emperor Constantine (324–337), the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian (527–565), and the iconoclastic policy of emperor Leo III (717–741) (Cormack 18). In the difficult task of surveying the diversity of Byzantine art, the researchers face two extremes. On the one hand, there has been an immense loss of historical material due to natural disasters and hostility acts. On the other hand, the variety of the remaining mate rial may puzzle an unprepared observer by the kaleidoscope of time and places it covers. From this discrepancy emerges a problematic issue: â€Å"whether to treat all the different media and materials that Byzantine art employs together or separately?† (Cormack 21–22). Tracing each branch of Byzantine art in chronological order appears a complex problem, since many artists worked with several types of material simultaneously. In addition, old and new art was equally displayed in Byzantine reality, and therefore Byzantine art demonstrates a unique quality of continuity combining tradition and innovation. Demonstrative of the balance of continuity and change in Byzantine art are two samples of different time periods. The earlier sample is a â€Å"vast monumental mosaic†, the later one is a â€Å"small portable icon† (Cormack 23). At first sight, both of them appear to depict the same subject - Christian saints in heaven after their death. Saints are a univ ersal topic for Christian art, but the choice of specific saints for depiction may point out significant differences in the topic of the artwork.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Certain visual clues allow for distinguishing the two samples from each other. The enormous mosaic in the dome of the church is largely damaged, and the preserved part features seventeen figures. Despite the fact that the saints are named, there is no visible clue as to the logics of their arrangement. The central position in the mosaic was probably occupied by the figure of Christ surrounded by flying angels. An analysis of the possible thematic scope prompts the idea that the subject matter of the mosaic could be the Second Coming. This powerful image produced an unquestionable visual effect on the early Christians and signified the glory and triumph of the Christia n church over the ideas of the antiquity in the late fifth – early sixth century (Cormack 29–30). Representing a later period in Byzantine art, the small icon is â€Å"a work of art of a different form [†¦] and function† (Cormack 30). Similar to the mosaic in its subject matter, the icon represents a group of saints surrounding Christ. In contrast to the mosaic, Christ is depicted not at the moment of the Second Coming but as a baby sitting in his mother’s lap. The scene represented in the icon can be identified as the Sunday of Orthodoxy. Along with other figures, it features â€Å"iconophile champions† who struggled in 726–843 for recognition of icons as a symbol of the Orthodox church (Cormack 32). In this sense, the icon presents the topic of true and firm belief in the core values of the Orthodox church. In the Shadow of St. Sophia Byzantine Art in the Sixth Century and Its Aftermath 527–680 Despite the fact that the develop ment of Byzantine art may seem quite gradual, there existed several turning points that marked significant change. In the sixth century such crucial event occurred on the Christmas Day 537, when emperor Justinian dedicated the renovated church of St Sophia. Destroyed by fire in 532, the church was restored in record short period and demonstrated a qualitatively new interpretation of church symbolism. The new St Sophia was proclaimed â€Å"a holy place, a house of prayer, the assembly of the people, the body of Christ, [†¦] an earthly heaven [that] represents the Crucifixion, Burial, and Resurrection of Christ† (Cormack 37). Symbolic of so many Christian values, St Sophia was the heart of Constantinople and a place for public and state contemplation of God. In its interiors, scenes and events from the New Testament were reenacted and thus provided a powerful historical link and revival of the Biblical narratives. The peculiarity of St Sophia interior of the time was that, unlike the latter trends in decoration, it did not contain any figurative mosaics. Rather, the presence of God was visualized by more objective and universal symbols: the sign of cross was repeated over and again in golden colors. There could be several reasons for such simple yet efficient solution. On the one hand, the restoration of St Sophia had to be completed in shortest terms, and avoiding complicated mosaics saved time and effort.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, if there had been any figurative images, the viewer’s gaze would stop on each individual scene and not perceive the overall grandeur of the church. St Sophia indeed impresses by its sizes: about 56 meters high, 30 meters wide, and 60 meters long, the building’s nave was much broader than that of a typical Gothic cathedral (Cormack 40). As for the interior decoration of St Sophia, in the sixth century it was characterized by especial lightness and freshness that resulted from absence of heavy figurative mosaics. Only eight porphyry columns were left, and the walls were covered with veined marble. Carved monograms of emperor Justinian and empress Theodora spread all over the colonnades. Although attention was definitely given to details, the moderateness of the embellishment signifies shortness of time for the church restoration. The main decorative function was therefore placed on the sculptural carvings. The attention, effort, and finance invested in the renovation of St Sophia by emperor Justinian emphasize the significant role church played in the political life of the time. After a series of successful military campaigns, the Byzantine empire stretched out immensely and was in need of powerful controlling mechanisms, of which morale was the key factor. Following the experience of the Romans, Justinian realized that not only administrative and legal system should be universal for all, but also the common religious creed mattered. Thus the stronghold of Christianity as a guiding religion for the empire was emphasized in the newly revived St Sophia in Constantinople. With the emergence of St Sophia as the central church which outshone the others by its splendor and grandeur, there still remained the tradition of pilgrimage to holy places. One of the most significant locations personally for emperor Justinian was the church of the Archangel Michael at Germia in Asia Minor (Cormack 45). It contained a grand ivory carving of Archa ngel Michael, presumably Justinian’s patron throughout his life. The prayer on the carving symbolized the emperor’s humility in face of the divine power. To commemorate his deceased wife Theodora, emperor Justinian built another masterpiece of Byzantine art, a fortified monastery of St Catherine on the Egyptian mount of Sinai. A popular destination for pilgrims already in the fourth century, mount Sinai was an ideal place for monks to retire from the vanities of the world and spend time in prayer and worship of God. The Sinai church, a wooden-roofed basilica, was surrounded by high walls and guarded by armed garrison. As a symbol of divine protections, multiple crosses were carved in the walls. The interior of the Sinai church itself was changed with the time, but in the sixth century it was mostly dominated by carvings and mosaics. The latter depicted, inter alia, the biblical events mostly related to mount Sinai: Moses at the Burning Bush and Moses receiving the Tabl ets of the Law (Cormack 50). Bright colors and gold in which the images were performed nearly blinded the visitor and thus produced the maximum impact and inspired the feelings of profound veneration. The significance of Justinian’s rule for development of Byzantine art cannot be overestimated. Together with restoring St Sophia and reinforcing the Sinai monastery, emperor Justinian promoted Byzantine art on the western borders of the Byzantine empire. The location most demonstrative of the emperor’s involvement is the north Italian city of Ravenna. Initially supporting the Arian branch of the Christian religion, the city could boast a spectacular mosaics in the church of S. Apollinare Nuovo. The enormous scale of Biblical events depicted in the mosaics can be imagined by realizing that only a small part of it contained already twenty-six scenes from Christ’s life (Cormack 55). After the 540 conquest of Ravenna by Justinian’s army, the Arian politics of th e city experienced a radical turn. This was also reflected in the religious artworks: the depictions of the previous ruler were removed from S.  Apollinare Nuovo mosaics, and a large group of Orthodox saints was added instead. Another building embodying Byzantine imperial power and reflecting the ambitious aspirations of its rulers was the church of S. Vitale in Ravenna. Housing the relicts of the local martyr Vitalis, the building reflected many of Byzantine art characteristic. On the one hand, the marble columns of the church resembled many of the kind made of the same material in Constantinople. On the other hand, the church of S. Vitale contains powerful images of most influential Byzantine emperor and empress, which adds an additional link between Constantinople and the western borders of the empire. The two mosaics depict emperor Justinian and empress Theodore who had actually never been to Ravenna. But their presence and participation in the liturgy is emphasized by the obj ects they are carrying: Justinian is holding bread and Theodora bears a goblet of wine, which played a crucial role in Orthodox ceremony. Despite of the effort emperor Justinian took to build and maintain the grandeur of his vast empire, his creation did not survive for long. But the consequences of his rule for Byzantine art were significant. The culture of monks flourished; churches and monasteries were generously sponsored and thus survived the crisis of the Dark Ages (Cormack 65). This emergence of monasteries as keepers of the Byzantine culture allowed for efficient replacement of whatever artworks were lost with new ones. A popular medium of expression was found in painted icons, and multiple prescriptions and canons of depiction appeared depending on the view of Christ by the clergy. The large number of icons signifies the transition to a more personal kind of emotional involvement with prayer and worship. The Definition of an Orthodox Christian Empire Byzantine Art 680â€⠀œ843 The peculiarity of studying Byzantine art is connected with the fact that the transformations occurring in art are deeply rooted in the reconsideration of the social functions of art. The situation is further complicated by the issue of especial timelessness of Byzantine artworks and their stylistic ambiguity. Therefore, Byzantine art cannot be considered from position of style change alone. The flowering of religious art in the time of emperor Justinian’s rule can thus be explained by the significant social function performed by Byzantine art of the time. The especial realism of icons in Justinian’s time was called to bring the Biblical meanings and messages closer to the average people. A system of visual and written clues would provide clear hints for even the illiterate to recognize certain saints. The latter would usually possess significant distinctive features or attributes. An especial significance was placed on the way the saints looked at the viewer: th e gaze was by large one of the main composites of the icon and reflected the popular belief about protection from the evil eye (Cormack 77). After emperor Justinian had died, there is observed a decrease in the quantity of artwork. However, the significance of art in everyday life for prayer and instruction. The debatable issue that emerged was that the abundance of icons challenged the authority of the saints and lead to the increasing importance of the icons proper. Gradually, a view was adopted that â€Å"icons were not made by hand† (achieropoietos) but rather appeared miraculously and thus represented the healing powers and protection of Christ (Cormack 77). Among the most outstanding examples of such achieropoietos were the Mandylion of Edessa at Sinai, the mosaic of Christ in the church of Hosios David at Thessaloniki, and the Kamouliana icon of Christ in Cappadocia (Cormack 77–78). One of the situations that had a crucial impact on the development of Byzantine art was the rise and expansion of Islam. Initially taken as just another occurrence of heresy by the Byzantines, Islam actually had much more lasting and deep consequences for Byzantine art. Along with the military confrontation, a surprising blending and cooperation between the two cultures could be observed. One of the demonstrative examples of such cooperation is the mosaic of the Great Mosque at Damascus that uses ornaments similar to those in the Christian Rotunda in Thessaloniki (Cormack 79–80). In addition, the Islamic leaders coined money which closely resembled Byzantine monetary standards. This cultural cooperation was significantly damaged when around 692 emperor Justinian II reformed the design of Byzantine gold nomisma: the obverse featured the face of Christ, while the emperor’s image occupied a secondary position on the reverse (Cormack 80). In reply, all imagery on Islamic coins was substituted by koranic verses. These events first brought the image of Christ in the secular sphere of money. A second version of Byzantine coin was made after Justinian II had recaptured the throne in 705, and Christ was depicted very unconventionally there: without a nimbus and with a very short beard. The two Byzantine coins bore not only a religious message but that of social and political significance. The first one represented a â€Å"distinctive Byzantine Orthodox identity in face of Islam and other rivals†; the second one emphasized Justinian II’s message that â€Å"Byzantium stood for good order in every aspect of life† (Cormack 81). The coins served as signs of national and cultural identification of the Byzantine people. The other situation that entailed grave consequences on the course of Byzantine art of the time was the way the church responded to the changing social and political environment. A determining event occurred in 692 when the Quinisext Council adopted over a hundred canons, most of which defined the furthe r development and social functioning of Byzantine art. Thus, for example, the image of cross was prohibited to be placed on the floor; Christ should be represented not in symbols but in His own form (Cormack 82). Thus, together with a generally positive attitude to icons as significant part of Orthodox Christianity, the Council also demonstrated the need for control over the iconic form and content. It is not difficult to see a political motive underlying such attitude: the orderly life in the Christian Byzantine empire was inseparable from the compliance of Christ’s image to the demands of clear representation. In the situation of increasing state control over the form and content of religious images, a point was reached when counter reaction was quite inevitable. During most of the eighth century and the first half of the ninth century, the art of icon painting was trapped between two contradictive extremes. On the one pole, there were the ideas of iconoclasm that called to destruction of icons. The ideas of iconoclasm were formulated in 754 during the Council of Hieria. Basing on the quote from the Bible, a second commandment given to Moses that disapproved of any graven image, the Council ruled that icons should be announced illegitimate (Cormack 87). Thus they solved the issue of paganism and its residuals in the Christian Byzantium. On the other pole, there were the ideas of iconophiles, who assembled in 787 at the Council of Nicaea and ruled that veneration of icons did not possess an idolatrous nature and therefore could be allowed (Cormack 87). Against this background, a fierce dispute unfolded between the two opposing groups. Unfolding not only in theory, but also in practice, the iconoclastic activities involved destruction of iconic images from such significant object of Byzantine art as St  Sophia in Constantinople and many others. The gold mosaics of St Sophia representing images of Christ and saints were ruthlessly scraped off and icons were taken down (Cormack 94). It should be noted, however, that the attacks of iconoclasts concerned not the art as such but the nature and social purpose. The art continued to be produced but simply in smaller quantities and a different quality. A bright example of iconoclastic art can be found in the church of St  Eirene in Constantinople. After an earthquake in 740, it was restored with mosaics featuring religious texts and the shape of the cross. Thus the main feature of iconoclastic art was avoiding any representation of the image of Christ and saints and substituting those images with the symbol of life-giving cross. Another illustration of iconoclasm in art can be seen in the Khludov Psalter of mid-ninth century. The earliest collection of illustrated psalms, this book contains images symbolic of the prolonged struggle between iconoclasts and iconophiles. This struggle for icons has been the key feature of Christian Orthodox church identity ever since. Developments and Div ersions in the Consolidated Empire Middle Byzantine Art 843–1071 As iconoclasm was defeated in 843, the Byzantine art witnessed a period of revival and restoration of the holy icon. The mutual support between the church and the state was unprecedented: the Byzantine empire was once again restored as a state ruled by order and certainty drawn from firm Christian belief. Such attitude is laid out in emperor Constantine VII’s written piece The Book of Ceremonies (Cormack 105). Monasteries flourished once again as places of active struggle against iconoclasm, and the role of monks in this struggle was radically reconsidered. Although the model for psalm books was still the Khludov Psalter of the ninth century, the pictures of Patriarch Nikephoros as a vigorous iconophile are replaced with those of the monk St Theodore (Cormack 106). Such substitution evidences the shift of significance from patriarch to monk in struggle against iconoclasm. The two hundred years starting fr om mid-ninth centuries are described by art historians as a second â€Å"Golden Age† of Byzantine art, or â€Å"Macedonian Renaissance† (Cormack 108). Those definitions apply mostly to the especially wide range of artworks and techniques created and developed throughout the period. After the dark times of iconoclasm, the innovations of Macedonian Renaissance appeared more as return to the past traditions of Byzantine art. The latter were significantly expanded by new themes and approaches. An example can be seen in the Paris Psalter of mid-tenth century, where - unlike the Khludov Psalter - emphasis is made on the textual contents. Apart from psalms and illustrations to them, the Paris Psalter includes a vast theological and scholarly commentary on the sacred texts (Cormack 109). As the renaissance period was market by return to pre-iconoclastic tradition, it becomes easy to trace connections between the pre- and post-iconoclastic artworks and note the innovations in the latter. Thus, for example, the post-iconoclastic mosaics of Koimisis monastery at Nicaea is performed in a traditional technique. But differently colored materials and differently sized cubes in faces and clothes prompt that it was created already after the struggle against iconoclasm. Another instance of merging tradition and innovation is seen in the art of coinage. The iconoclast emperor Leo III rejected the Christian imagery of money coined by Justinian II and ordered that both the obverse and the reverse of the coin represent a portrait of an emperor. In mid-ninth century, emperor Michael III started coining money with the image of Christ on the obverse. The idea was not a mere allusion to the coin design of Justinian II. Every line copied the old version and the inscription â€Å"Jesus Christ† dispelled any doubt as to the image presented on the coin (Cormack 114). Thus, the coin design became a powerful declaration of return to the past. In this period of revival and consolidation, not only the old themes and styles were restored but also the connection with the eastern parts of the Byzantine empire was emphasized. Emperors brought items from the legendary east to their palaces and openly placed them for general admiration. Such was the throne of Solomon, surrounded by golden lions, birds, and trees; according to legends, the lions would roar and the birds would sing when the emperor was sitting on the throne. The solution of this mystery could be that there was an organ built in the throne to produce the amazing sounds. The idea for the throne presumably originated from the court of Persia (Cormack 115). In addition to the technology of organ-building, the emperor court and the church often used such oriental inventions as Persian silk draperies, as well as elements of Arabic writing. The Byzantine empire was once again open and welcoming other cultures. After the radical stripping the St Sophia church off its mosaics by the iconoclasts, a new look corresponding to the new vision of religious art had to be given to the building which was the center of Christian empire. Provided the amount of expertise, time, and work required by the large-scale projects, the efforts of patriarch Photios cannot be overestimated. His speech on the dedication of the first mosaic in St Sophia after iconoclasm, Virgin and the Child, is demonstrative by its deep intellectual analysis. Photios emphasized the double significance of Mary’s image both as â€Å"lifelike imitation† and â€Å"real archetype† and interpreted it as a reminder of salvation and necessity of reverence to God (Cormack 119–120). Other mosaics of the church featured essentially timeless scenes from the Bible and at the same time reflected the events of the period, immortalizing the prominent patriarchs and emperors of the time. Important accents were placed on the kind of relations between emperors and God. Humility, repentance in face of God, and generosity were the key qualities to be demonstrated by ideal Byzantine emperors and depicted in various mosaics of St Sophia. Thus, the main social norms of the time were established through art which once again proved an excellent means of communication. To any of the visitors, the artistic decorations of St Sophia clearly represented a picture of the contemporary cultural and political state of Byzantine society. In the case of historical analysis of art, the term ‘renaissance’ is mostly applied to the period of Italian art between fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Justification of Macedonian Renaissance faces the issue of whether artworks created at that time were recreations of the classical samples or whether they were innovations based on the knowledge of classical and Christian art. Compared to Italian art radical revolution towards the standards of the Ancient Greece and Rome that was based on close study of authentic ancient texts, the Byzantine knowledg e of its past art was scarce. The aggressive period of iconoclasm by large destroyed a big share of classical Byzantine art and left scarce traces of it for the coming generations. Instead of merely copying the classical samples, Byzantine artists of the tenth century rather handled the new techniques they developed against the background of classical values and ideas. The New Spirituality of the Eleventh Century and the World of the Twelfth Century After the triumphant revival Byzantine art experienced with the defeat of iconoclasm, Orthodox faith found its expression through a vast range of artistic means. The church of St Sophia was redecorated by mosaics of unprecedented scope, and Constantinople was as always dictating its will to the rest of the empire. In such situation there emerges an issue of whether Constantinople was an artistic center ever since the fall of iconoclasm and whether the provinces had any artistic traditions of their own. On the one hand, monasteries and ch urches were built and decorated all over the Byzantine empire, which evidences that cultural interest was not concentrated in the capital city only. On the other hand, it often occurred that artists from Constantinople were invited to remote areas for design and decoration of buildings, which emphasizes the exclusive nature of contemporary artistic knowledge and skills. Such materials as ivory, silk, mosaics, and enamels have traditionally been ascribed to Constantinople artisans. In certain rare cases, such as with the city of Thessaloniki, the province had the means to support and develop its own workshops. But still if attention is turned to details, dominance and prevalence of Constantinople artwork is traced in many locations. Such is the case with the church of St Sophia in Sinai: the style of figures and mosaics is similar to that represented in Constantinople. On the other hand, the interior of other churches in the region suggests a cooperation between the capital and local artists. If Byzantine art is to be considered as that exceeding the borders of Constantinople only, this attitude is supported by examples of churches found in rural areas of Asia Minor and Cappadocia (Cormack 149). Whatever the case may be, the triumphant position of the Orthodox church at period discussed facilitated quantitative and qualitative intensification in art production. One of the most significant changes of the was the transformation of the church sanctuary. In early Byzantine churches, the division between spaces for the clergy and for the laypeople was purely symbolical, not more than a humble barrier (Cormack 150). However, after the defeat of iconoclasm, the meaning and importance of the sanctuary increased dramatically, and so did the artwork decorating the place. A screen called templon was set up to divide the areas for laypeople and the places where bread and wine were kept (Cormack 151). In the centre of the screen the Royal Doors were situated, through which the priest would bring out the bread and wine symbolizing the body and blood of Christ. This screen developed through centuries and was gradually covered with an increasing amount of icons that would forever cover the sanctuary from the eyes of the laypeople. Such development of the sanctuary screen naturally required an unprecedented amount of icons to be made and venerated. Apart from the templon, icons were used on the adjacent walls and shrines dedicated to individual saints. Icons of the latter were created according to the following scheme: in the center of the icon, the key scene from the saint’s life was depicted and surrounded by smaller images of biographical moments. The daily calendar of the church also had to be illustrated with icons, and this was done either by separate icon for each occasion or by calendar icons including sets of several monthly icons (Cormack 152). During the period from ninth to fourteenth century, the quantity of icons on the sanctuary incr eased dramatically and had a double effect on the perception of the religious sacrament. On the one hand, the shield of icons increased the mystery over the sanctuary and the altar of the church. On the other hand, the images of the icons brought the divine holiness closer to laypeople and made it more understandable for them. Step by step, icons transformed their initial meaning from illustrations of religious history into visual aids directly incorporated in the liturgy. Icons of the eleventh and twelfth centuries reflect a gradual change to their nature and meaning: for the first time, the heavenly ladder is depicted and thus the ideas of divine light and salvation are promoted. One of the peculiarities of the period was the separation of monasteries from the church headed by the ‘secular’ patriarch. Emotional and social life of contemporary Byzantium was dominated by monasteries that gave refuge to those who wanted to follow Christ’s life on earth. The societ y delegated the task of worshiping God to monasteries and generously endowed them for it. Since in Christian Orthodox practice, art was the way â€Å"to assist and enhance spiritual experience†, monasteries played a central role in developments of art at that time (Cormack 158). Emperors patronized monasteries, and one of the brightest examples of it was the 1136 monastery of Christ Pantokrator. Comprising three churches, a hospital, an old people’s home, and a leprosarium, the monastery could boast interiors decorated with marble, stained glass, and mosaics. Hosting such relics as a stone on which Christ’s body supposedly rested after Crucifixion, and the prestigious icon of Virgin Hodigitra, the monastery attracted pilgrims and their generous donations (Cormack 161). For the purpose of understanding the ways Christian Byzantine art developed outside Constantinople and its suburbs, it is instructive to consider Christian monasteries that functioned in Greece du ring the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greek Hosios Lukas monastery comprised three churches (Theotokos church, katholikon, and the crypt church). The peculiar features of the first church are the lion-headed gargoyles on the dome and the pseudo-Arabian decorations of the exterior. The katholikon is filled with marble sarcophagi and decorated with multiple wall paintings that provided a less time-consuming substitute for mosaics. The crypt church is thematically connected with the images of katholikon: the katholikon mosaic of Doubting Thomas is copied in the crypt wall painting (Cormack 165–167). In another Greek monastery, Daphni, a certain semblance in decoration types may be traced with Hosios Lukas. However, the depiction style is different: the figures are more natural and less generalized. Such minor variations suggest that the ways of depiction varied depending on the immediate needs of a given religious community. The political situation around the Byzantine em pire had changed dramatically during the two centuries. The Christian world faced the opposition between the Orthodox and the Latin church. Byzantines were driven from Italy by the Normans. Princes of Kiev established their own powerful state of Kiev Rus’. Serbian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian people demonstrated autonomous tendencies as well. However, despite the gradual loss of territorial influence, the Byzantine empire managed to extend its existence by introducing its art forms and techniques to the rest of the world. Samples of Byzantine art were created in Spain, Kiev Rus’, and Italy, which helped to preserve Byzantine culture by marrying it to that of western Europe. Art in the Service of a Failing Society Late Byzantine Art 1204–1453 The event that defined the fate of Byzantine art in its late period was the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in April 1204. A mass transportation of Byzantine artworks started to western Europe. Relics of Christian r eligion were moved from churches where they originally reposed to churches and monasteries of Italy and France. Sculptures, vessels, enamels, books, chalices, reliefs, and many other works of art were exported from the Byzantine republic to royal residences. By the time Louis XIV came to the throne, the Louvre could boast a vastest collection of precious Byzantine vessels (Cormack 187). At the same time, the ransacked court in Constantinople struggled to preserve at lease something of its former glory. The notable issue about the western invasion into the Byzantine empire was that on the one hand, the western people were charmed and mesmerized by masterpieces of Byzantine art which they had previously known only by copies. On the other hand, quite paradoxically, most of the innovations the westerners brought to Byzantium were totally disconnected with the historical culture of the land. The church of St Sophia in Constantinople was converted for Catholicism and left deteriorating. T he new monasteries were built prevalently in western style. The cooperation of the east and the west can be traced only in the creations of Crusaders. Their mosaics, paintings, and manuscripts were therefore crucial for the development of Byzantine art in its late period. An example of mixture between western and eastern artistic styles and content can be seen in the iconic triptych from Sinai, including the scene of Coronation of the Virgin. Initially, coronation was a western procedure, and placing the Virgin on the throne next to Christ contradicted the principles of Orthodox Christianity (Cormack  190). The process of assimilation of the other culture was experienced by both the eastern and the western artists which makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish who was the real author of an artwork. After the historical events of the early thirteenth century, the Byzantine society faced a choice: whether to stick to the established traditions of Byzantine art or assimilate new i deas and techniques that came from the west. Since contacts with the west became part of daily routine in the life of Byzantine empire, the latter option appeared more likely to follow. Against this background of continuous cultural contact, the church was trying to assume a reasonable position. A profound discussion unfolded on such controversial issues of Christian religion as papal primacy, purgatory, and others (Cormack 194). Western theological works were closely studied in Byzantium and provoked some of the Byzantine people’s disappointment in Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism. Byzantine society was torn between two extremes: anti-papists on the one hand and disillusioned intellectuals on the other hand. In any case, the art of the time reflected the unstable situation where consistent positions were rarely followed. Being closely acquainted with the western achievements in Gothic and Renaissance art, Byzantine art consciously made its choice, either accepting or re jecting the foreign standards. There cannot be traced any distinct and consistent line of either following the western tradition or its denial in Byzantine art of the time. Means of expression and techniques varied greatly in this period of cultural crossroads. A significant feature of contemporary Byzantine art was its utmost religious emotionality and appeal. The loss of glory and prestige of Constantinople was a hard blow for the Byzantine empire, and the attempts to restore the former influence proved in vain (Cormack 198–199). With the return of grand court and patriarch to Constantinople in 1261, there emerged a new hope for restoring the empire. Much effort was put into collecting and displaying the artifacts of the glorious past which remained after the Crusaders invasion. The prior task for raising the prestige of the Byzantine capital was refurbishment of its major shrine, the church of St Sophia. An enormous mosaic, the Deisis, was made on the southern wall of the church (Cormack 201). Over five meters in height and six meters in width, this magnificent panel depicted Christ at the Second Coming and symbolized the restoration of the Byzantine empire to its former greatness. Together with the large scale of the mosaic, it impressed by an especial intimacy and naturalism with which the figures are performed. The delicate modeling of faces in the mosaic was a bright example of early western Renaissance style adapted by Byzantine artists. The Deisis mosaic represented an icon of extraordinary scale and was not the only representative of this large-scale genre. On the other hand, late Byzantine art also produced micro-mosaic panels that were not only used in Byzantine religious practices but also became collectors’ items among the western connoisseurs (Cormack 202–203). The late thirteenth century witnessed a peculiar innovation that resulted from artistic patronage of artworks. Thus, in Constantinople, the already existing monasteri es obtained new architectural structures and forms. The two brightest examples are the addition of a side-church to St Mary Pammakaristos and the rebuilding of the Chora Monastery (Cormack 204). The latter involved joint efforts of artists, architects, and church planners, who carried out their project by rearranging the vaults of the former katholikon, building an inner and outer narthex, and other modifications decisive for the new design. The main subject of the church were the cycles of the Life of the Virgin and the Infancy and Ministry of the Christ (Cormack  207). Focusing on salvation of the soul and significance of the Virgin, the cycles as such represent quite a traditional subject. However, this conventionality is touched up by certain innovatory findings. For one thing, the cycle contains a number of rare scenes from the life of the Virgin that had not been depicted in other locations. For another thing, different principles of perspective are used in this depiction th an in traditional western Renaissance art. Thus together with adherence to Byzantine tradition, the artwork in the Chora Monastery demonstrates latent innovation that was not to draw too much attention. The fourteenth century witnessed sufficient change in the art of iconography. The templon screen that covered the sanctuary gradually evolved into a whole iconostasis holding several layers of icons (Cormack 210). The range and complexity of the church interior cycles increased, as did the range of spiritual experience depicted in the icons. Another innovation was including the personal signature of the artist in the icon or wall painting. This tradition rooted in the western art which emphasized the growing social status of artists and presented their work as goods contesting for popularity among consumers. Although the Orthodox church discouraged such approach, artistic individuality and style became quite prominent during the period. An example of an outstanding icon painter can b e found in the figure of Theophanes the Greek who worked in Moscow and Novgorod. Cormack, Robert. Byzantine Art. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.

Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 9

Annotated Bibliography Example This article confirms the report from Martin and Lehren, where low-income students were able to pay off their debts. The article is credible, because authors had knowledge and skills in conducting this kind of study. This article helps my research, because it informs readers of the financial effects of student loans after college. College loans may be too high to be adequately paid, which discourage some students from graduating in college. Baum, Sandy. â€Å"Hard Heads and Soft Hearts: Balancing Equity and Efficiency in Institutional Student Aid Policy.† New Directions for Higher Education 140 (2007): 75-85. Advanced Placement Source. Web. 3 July 2012. Baum explores the hardships for school administrators in balancing equity and efficiency decisions. The main argument of the article in relation to college debt is that society increasingly favors people with merit or skills, instead of helping those who are in need. She argues for the importance of providing discounts to low-income students, so that they can have the chance to enter college. The author is reliable, because she has skills and knowledge in economics. The journal is also credible, since it focuses on diverse higher education issues and employs empirical approach to data collection and analysis. This article is important to my research, because it shows that low-income students struggle to get college loans that they critically need to finish college. Because of their intense desire to finish college, they may lack awareness and knowledge that college costs may be too high to help them in quickly alleviating their financial problems right after college. Cooper argues against the commoditization of college education, because the learning experience is individuated, and the language of business cannot be applied to the learning process and systems of colleges. Moreover, he believes that commoditizing education neglects the

What are the effects of social network sites on the English teenagers Coursework

What are the effects of social network sites on the English teenagers - Coursework Example 172). Social networking has had diverse effects on English teenagers both positive and negative depending on the person examining the effects and on the angle viewed. SNS have led to improved social connections among the teens, which have been fundamental in affecting social skills among them, especially the ones who are shy in interacting in the real world. These sites build the confidence of the teens and affect the interaction skills through the platforms they provide where a person can express his or her opinions freely without any fear. This has been made possible by the options the sites present for self-expression through updating a status, commenting, liking or disliking, joining a relevant group on Facebook and tweeting on Twitter among others. The youngsters then apply the social skills gained from the social networking in the real world either consciously or unconsciously since the skills become part of their day-to-day social life. In addition, these internet sites have been o f great importance to the teens in making friendships with other teens across the globe and in maintaining their current friendships (Zheng, Burrow and Drew 2010, p.15). As a result, important friendships that have been critical in the teen’s adult life have been created which could not be possible if these social interaction tools did not exist. Social Network sites have enabled the English teenagers to have a cheap and readily available access to a wide range of information on various issues, which affect them in their various activities. This has been possible since the sites provide their users with access to millions of people from the different parts of the world that are well knowledgeable and specialized in different fields. The teens therefore depending on their interests, likes, ambitions and passion choose the kind of people whom they are interested in and start learning from them through the various tools the SNS present. Research shows that

OPINION LETTER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

OPINION LETTER - Essay Example Employers respond to the employees postings on Facebook with the threat of work termination but they have to evaluate whether they are breaking the law or not by firing a worker because of the utilization of social media. In response, worker who have been fired because of the use of social media have filed complaints with the NLRB arguing that they have been relieved of their jobs due to the utilization of social media especially Facebook. Other workers argue that the organizations have put in place policies that aim to frustrate their personal freedom of expression. The report from NLRB reveals that majority of Facebook users do not consider possible outcomes before they make any inflammatory posting on the site and their remarks about a certain attract much attention than they had expected. Employers on their part are firing workers who post inflammatory statements on Facebook on grounds that they are tarnishing the firm’s name with their irrational remarks or in simple manner, acting unprofessionally on social media sites. However, what they fail to understand is that employees or workers ramblings might be guarded by labor policies. A good case study about Facebook firings is the case concerning the medical technician. Souza Dawnmarie remarked on Facebook in 2010 how she liked how the firm permits a 17 to become a manager. In this case, she was referring to her employer at the head office in Hartford. The company (AMR) though the use of number 17 meant psychiatric patients. The case was in December 2009. The case was Souza v AMR firm. Despite the fact that Souza commented from the confines of her individual computer during after work hours, she was later fired for allegedly making inflammatory remarks about the company’s boss. She filed the case to NLRB and in February 2011, informed AMR firm that its laws hindering workers from making negative remarks on social

How Does The Media Influence Young Girls Media Essay

How Does The Media Influence Young Girls Media Essay There are many programs and magazines, such as Americas next top model and Seventeen magazine, that are watched and read by many teenage girls. These girls are insecure and want to be popular, handsome and well-liked. The young women are therefore easily influenced by the information they receive from the media. An average teenage girl hides herself using tons of make-up and beautiful clothes, because she is insecure about her outer appearance. Every morning she has to get herself prepared for the day. She decides to skip her breakfast, an extra hour of sleep, or even her first lesson. She takes a shower, puts on enough make-up and dresses herself well. These girls are influenced by the beautiful and perfect women, whose pictures are showed in advertisements and on TV. A variety of programs show us public images of how you should dress, look and act. The young girls wish that they are also perfect, with the perfect dress and with the perfect make-up; so that they are attractive to boys and that they look like the girls and women on TV. Well known make-up artists such as Rimmel London and Max Factor present their make-up with skinny girls, who have the perfect skin and the perfect look. So the question is, are they selling the product, the make-up, or are they selling the beautiful woman? The advertisements are indeed selling the product, but they are also selling the image of the ideal woman. They emphasize thinness as part of the females beauty. These women, who are on the covers of the magazines, serve as an example for the teenage girls. They also want to be thin, have big boobs, and a beautiful skin. These images affect the girls own self-image. Not only the models have a great influence on the girls, also the articles written in the popular teenage magazines have a great influence on the young women. The articles explain the girls about the ideal appearance. Articles like How to look attractive to boys and How to achieve the perfect look, hair and face are extremely normal. An article on the website of Seventeen magazine gives you the perfect example of such an article, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾New Makeup Promise to Boost Your Mood!  [1]  This article is about a new make-up that promises to make you happy. It explains about the ingredients, such as Euphoryl, Murumuru Seed Butter and Theobroma Grandiflorum, whatever they are, and I am sure that girls, who read this article, think about buying this make-up, without realising if these ingredients really work! Outer appearance has become very important throughout the years for everyone, because of the media. They emphasize the importance of the physical appearance and that is the way advertisers sell beauty products such as day and night creams and make-up. Women and teenage girls therefore strive to achieve the ideal outer appearance presented by the media. They are not satisfied with their own body and are doing anything to become beautiful. Do you recognize these young women? I bet that almost two third of the teenage girls could be compared to the average teenage girl who has been influenced by the media. These girls are boring and not outstanding. Thus, the media should stop offering false information to young women about the perfect body. The media encourages the girls to have a negative self-image. In fact, a person who is fat and walks like a duck has probably a more beautiful personality than the other girls. Although these girls are not to blame, the media is. (617 words) By writing an opinion column, I wanted to express my opinion about how the media influences young women, because advertisements, commercials, TV programs and magazines are all influencing the teenage girls by giving them false information. An opinion column should not be written in a particular style. As a columnist you are free to write in your own style, although it still has to be worth reading. So my first objective was to write a convincing opinion column that would be easy to read for most people. Therefore I didnt use many difficult words and tried to be convincing by giving the reader important information about the influence of the media. My second objective was to inform the people about the influence of the media on teenage girls. I explained the average, insecure teenage girl who can be easily influenced by beautiful models printed on the cover of the popular teenage magazines. As an example I described a daily morning of an average teenage girl. Every morning she has to get herself prepared for the day (paragraph 2). The girls strive for having the perfect face; therefore they skip their breakfast to prepare for school. To support my opinion about the influence of media I used another example. On the website of Seventeen magazine, an American magazine for teenagers, I found an article that was called: New Makeup Promise to Boost Your Mood! (see stimulus material). This article is about a special make-up that would make the girls happier. Young teenage girls are easily influenced by this text and by the convincing title, because the title makes a certain promise to you. My third objective was to explain what image the advertisements and commercials are selling. I explained the ideal outer appearance and why it has become more popular over the years. They emphasize thinness as part of the females beauty. (paragraph 3) My last objective was to imitate the layout of a newspaper, using columns and an appropriate title. To accomplish this objective I looked at other opinion columns, and imitated the layout of the page. Stimulus material: article New Makeup Promises to Boost Your Mood! January 4, 2011 at 2:58:00 PM by Seventeen Magazine Its no surprise that when youre happy or excited you ace a test, your boyfriend sends over flowers for no reason, your face has a gorgeous glow. (Feeling beautiful = looking beautiful!) But what about a makeup product that produces the same effect? The Happy Booster Glow Mood Boosting Blush and Face Powder by Physicians Formula promises to lift your spirits. Its the first-ever makeup line developed to stimulate happy thoughts through mood-enhancing ingredients, color therapy, aroma therapy, and texture therapy. Basically, it copies the effect of endorphins, aka happy molecules, which produce a sense of well-being. (Your body releases endorphins during exercise, which is what makes you feel great afterward.) Other ingredients include Euphoryl, which is an anti-depressant packed with Omega-3, as well as Murumuru Seed Butter and Theobroma Grandiflorum Seed Butter, which make skin feel silky-smooth and appear luminous. Finally, its blend of floral scents refreshes your mood. And how cute is this packaging?! All this happiness is contained in a heart-shaped plastic compact with a pink metallic base. It comes in a face powder (see above), blush, and bronzer, and each is a variety of overlapping different-colored hearts. So, the big question: can you buy happiness? For $11.95-13.95 at select drugstores, you just might come close!

Native Son Essay: The Quest for Identity -- Native Son Essays

Native Son: The Quest for Identity  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The violence depicted in Native Son, although quite grotesque, is absolutely necessary to deliver the full meaning that Richard Wright wishes to convey.   Bigger's many acts of violence are, in effect, a quest for a soul. He desires an identity that is his alone. Both the white and the black communities have robbed him of dignity, identity, and individuality. The human side of the city is closed to him, and for the most part Bigger relates more to the faceless mass of the buildings and the mute body of the city than to another human being. He constantly sums up his feelings of frustration as wanting to "blot out" those around him, as they have effectively blocked him out of their lives by assuming that he will fail in any endeavor before he tries. He has feelings, too, of fear, as Wright remarks "He was following a strange path in a strange land" (p.127). His mother's philosophy of suffering to wait for a later reward is equally stagnating -- to Bigger it appears that she is weak a nd will not fight to live. Her religion is a blindness; but she needs to be blind in order to survive, to fit into a society that would drive a "seeing" person mad. All of the characters that Bigger says are blind are living in darkness because the light is too painful. Bigger wants to break through that blindness, to discover something of worth in himself, thinking that "all one had to do was be bold, do something nobody ever thought of. The whole things came to him in the form of a powerful and simple feeling; there was in everyone a great hunger to believe that made them blind, and if he could see while others were blind, then he could get what he wanted and never be caught at it" (p.120). Just as ... ...ne who will remember. His thought "Max did not even know!" (p.494) shows some of the passion behind his quest for self. If extreme emotions are polar opposites of each other, and one is born simply with the capacity for emotion itself, then Bigger could have been great. But the image of the death of the product, the child, of the city appeals to those who caused his birth, and there is no redemption for Bigger. Society hates most what it itself creates, and Bigger as the very reflection of that society must die. He is not a good person, he is not noble or true or brilliantly creative. But he has the capacity for all of those things, and has not been given the chance to fulfill them. His crime of violence is as much the crime of the people around him, who stifled his soul and nourished the other, baser side of him that was the only way he had of self-expression.   

Od of Whole Food Market Essay

Introduction Organizational behavior and structure are key factors in leading a company to be efficient and successful. Organizational diagnosis models have been created to allow companies to audit themselves to be sure that they are utilizing these key factors correctly. When a firm conducts an organizational diagnosis it is performed to identify strengths and weaknesses in its systems thus developing measures to improve the organizations performance. Knowing which model to use is crucial because misusing models could lead to inaccurate findings. In the following pages I will discuss and compare numerous models to include the 7S Model, the Congruence Model, and the Burke-Litwin Model. After discussing a few issues that Whole Foods Market (WFM) is facing I will recommend which model is best suited for them and explain why. Force Field Analysis This model uses an organizational diagnosis to identify driving forces affecting a company (Falletta, 2005). Force Field analysis enables a company to identify what causes change and what hinders change within a certain organization. This will allow an organization to develop measures that will allow the organizations driving forces to be maximized while the restraining forces are at the same time limited to allow the organization to be more efficient. The drawback to this model is that it is extremely simple and is not the best model for defining specific problems it more or less will allow a company to reach a desired state of affairs and nothing else. Leavitt’s Model This model has task variables, technological variables, structure variables and human variables. The model can be used to evaluate how to change in one of the variables will affect the others, and is best applied in analysis concerning organizational structure and human resources. The strength in this model lays in its simplicity but this can also be viewed as a weakness because the output from the model cannot provide direct causal statements relating to the variables. Likert System Analysis This analysis is best applied in an organization to examine issues relating to motivation, communication, interaction, goal setting, decision making,  control and performance. The Likert System is important in analyzing management systems within an organization and how they affect performance (Falletta, 2005). This model evaluates employee perceptions and how they affect individual and group performance. The main strength of this model is that is uses determined scales which make assessment more qualitative and easier. The drawback of this model is that it is really only good for examining the social aspect affecting an organization and doesn’t consider what affects that processes, structure and the environment have on an organization. McKinsey 7S Framework Variables that are examined in this model include style, staff, systems, skills, strategy, structure, and shared values. This model is applied in an organization to investigate whether or not their inputs such as structure, skills, and strategy align with company objectives (Falletta, 2005). A change in any of the variables will eventually cause changes in the other variables. The model has strength in the form of being able to analyze essential variables that affect an organizations performance and it is simpler to use than some of the other models. However, the model does not take into consideration environmental effects on a company’s effectiveness and operations. Burke-Litwin Model This model includes the following variables; management practices work unit climate, mission and strategy, organizational structure, leadership, task requirements and individual skills, individual needs and values, culture, systems, motivation, and finally individual and organizational performance. The Burke-Litwin Model can be used to investigate not only internal but external factors that influence an organization and further goes to show how the factors interact (Martins & Coetzee, 2009). Most believe this to be one of the most robust and overall better OD models to use for analysis because it provides the nature and direction of influence of organizational variables. This model also provides a difference between transformational and transactional dynamics. The strength of this model is that it is able to analyze organizational structure, task requirements, individual skills, and the external environment all at the same time. Congruence Model This model contains inputs, throughputs, and outputs and is best used in an organization to identify the degree to which the needs, objectives and structures of one part of an organization are congruent to the needs, objectives and structure of another part (Falletta, 2005). Its strength is in the obvious ability it has to show organizations how to improve efficiency and effectiveness. The model’s main weakness is that it does not evaluate effect of demands made by the environment (Nadler & Tushman, 1980). Current Issues WFM is Facing Perhaps the largest issue that WFM faces is the price of their goods. The fact of the matter is not everyone who wants natural and organic foods can enjoy the WFM experience. There is no surprise in the fact that organic and natural food is more expensive than other groceries and in times of economic downtown if customers don’t feel they are getting a good deal then they will most likely seek cheaper alternatives. What this means is when someone’s budget shrinks they won’t be able to purchase as much at WFM vs. one of their competitors. Another issue that is just as important to WFM is new entrants to the organic and natural foods market with companies like Wal Mart, Kroger and other larger, cheaper supermarkets. These big name companies are starting to create their own private label brands to compete with WFM but since a majority of their business is derived from products that aren’t natural and organic they can cut prices in this segment of the market to attract customers to their store while not taking a huge loss in profits. The final issue facing WFM is the threat of substitute products and services. One major competitor of WFM is Trader Joe’s Co. who also offers upscale groceries such as health foods and organic produce. One strength of WFM over Wal Mart and Kroger are their unique store atmospheres that most big box stores lack but companies like Trader Joe’s threaten WFM with their own â€Å"Mom and Pop† substitute atmosphere. Another company like this was Wild Oats which WFM was able to acquire to lessen some of their competition. What Model is Best for WFM? Given the set of organizational diagnosis models from Falletta, I believe the most useful one for analyzing Whole Foods Market will be the Burke-Litwin Model. According to Falletta, and many others in the realm of OD say that this model provides a strong approach for analyzing relationships among leadership an d strategy, financial decisions and operational issues. All three of the issues that WFM is facing I believe could benefit from some changes via this OD model. The fact that this model investigates internal and external factors influencing an organization and further helps show how factors interact sets this model ahead of many of the earlier OD models that exist and some even discussed above. For example an external factor like how the economy is doing largely affects WFM because customers know there are cheaper alternatives and early OD models like the Force Field Model would not be able to use this factor to help better situate the company. The Burke-Litwin Model however will take the external environment into consideration during its diagnosis. In fact all three issues listed above that WFM is facing can be categorized as dealing mostly with external environment issues. Something that only an open systems model could handle. Another reason I believe that The B-L Model should be used by WFM is the fact that it can distinguish between the culture and climate of an organization and also between transformational and transactional dynamics (Falletta, 2005). Obviously in the big picture this fact is important because almost no other model does this. This is important for WFM because their brand, image, store atmosphere are crucial in keeping their customers and getting new customers so not being able to diagnose these areas correctly could be traumatic for them. I think transformational and transactional leadership principles can largely affect an organization . Specifically I think that if a good transformational leadership principle is enacted throughout an organization it is visible to the outside through things such as employees motivation and personality towards customers. This is important for WFM because of the type of atmosphere they are trying to create inside their stores. Using this model could help diagnose this variable and give another reason to customers to shop at WFM and not at one  of its competitors who is offering a substitute product. I believe the same principle applies to the variables of climate and culture. Most of the other models combine these two variables but as we know now these two variables need to be set apart and the B-L model is the model that allows for that. As already mentioned above the companies climate and culture are two things that can be controlled and if used effectively cannot only help the business for obvious reasons but I believe these are two variables that would especially help WFM because these are variables that outsiders can pick up on when things are going good or even wrong. Take Apple for example, the climate and culture of this company create a mysterious phenomenon that brings its customers closer to the company. You can’t say this for Microsoft or Samsung. This is something that WFM could use more of to again out compete with Trader Joe’s. Conclusion In closing, since the 50’s there have been numerous OD models created and each one building upon the last. Organizations today now have many options when it comes to OD and which model to use but knowing which model to use is just as important as getting an accurate OD. By comparing all the models and identifying the issues an organization currently has one can better diagnose the situation. For WFM I believe the Burke-Litwin Model would best suit them and solve the issues described above.